Tech Diplomacy: Origins and Contemporary Practice

By Ayumi Moore Aoki
24 July 2025

Tech diplomacy has emerged as a critical diplomatic innovation in response to the digital transformation of international relations. This article examines the origins and evolution of tech diplomacy, from Denmark’s pioneering appointment of the world’s first Tech Ambassador in 2017 to the diverse contemporary practices now employed by governments worldwide. The analysis explores how nation-states are adapting their diplomatic frameworks to engage with powerful technology corporations and navigate the complex intersection of digital innovation, sovereignty, and global governance. Drawing on recent developments and case studies, this article argues that tech diplomacy represents a fundamental shift from traditional state-centric diplomacy toward more inclusive, multistakeholder approaches that recognize the distributed nature of power in the digital age.

Introduction

The rapid advancement of digital technologies and the unprecedented influence of multinational technology corporations have fundamentally altered the landscape of international relations. As artificial intelligence, big data, social media, and other digital innovations transcend national borders at unprecedented speed, traditional diplomatic structures have struggled to keep pace with these transformative changes (Bjola & Kornprobst, 2025). This challenge has given rise to tech diplomacy—a specialized field of diplomatic practice that seeks to bridge the gap between technological innovation and international governance.

Tech diplomacy has been defined as “the conduct and practice of international relations, dialogue, and negotiations on global digital policy and emerging technological issues among states, the private sector, civil society, and other groups” (Garcia, 2024). Unlike traditional diplomacy, which was primarily state-centric, tech diplomacy is characterized by a polylateral approach that brings together governments, private sector entities, civil society organizations, and technical experts in collaborative frameworks for addressing digital challenges (Bjola & Kornprobst, 2025).

The emergence of tech diplomacy reflects what scholars have identified as a “diplomatic deficit” in the digital age, where traditional governance structures prove inadequate for managing the complex interactions between technological innovation and international relations (Klynge et al., 2020). This article examines the origins and contemporary practice of tech diplomacy, with particular attention to Denmark’s pioneering role in establishing this new diplomatic field.

Historical Origins and the Danish Pioneer

The Genesis of Tech Diplomacy

The origins of tech diplomacy can be traced to the recognition of fundamental shifts in international power dynamics brought about by digital transformation. As global technology companies began to wield influence that rivals or even surpasses that of many nation-states, governments found themselves inadequately equipped to engage with these powerful non-state actors or to address the foreign policy implications of technological change (Gu, 2023).

The transformative nature of emerging technologies, combined with the rise of powerful non-state actors, has reshaped foreign policy and geopolitics in unprecedented ways. Artificial intelligence has rapidly become a battlefield in shifting global power balances, cybersecurity has risen to the top of national security agendas, and 5G networks have become contested issues internationally (Klynge et al., 2020). This transformation created what the Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity at the University of California, Berkeley, aptly described: “Digital geopolitics is no longer a layer superimposed on conventional geopolitics; digital is creating new alignments among new actors, and not only states” (as cited in Klynge et al., 2020, p. 188).

Denmark’s Innovation Exercise

Denmark’s response to this challenge marked a watershed moment in diplomatic history. The Danish TechPlomacy initiative emerged from a systematic innovation exercise within the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) in early 2017. MFA senior management established an Innovation Group consisting of career diplomats and information technology specialists, tasked with developing fresh ideas and recommendations on the future of diplomacy in light of emerging digital technologies (Klynge et al., 2020).

The Innovation Group’s deliberations led to a crucial recognition: as a small, open, advanced economy ranking among the top five most digitalized countries in the European Union and topping the UN’s yearly survey on e-governance, Denmark had significant stakes in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Klynge et al., 2020). Yet like most other foreign services worldwide, the Danish Foreign Ministry lacked a dedicated structure to effectively address the foreign policy dimensions of emerging technologies or engage multinational tech companies in a structured manner.

The group’s analysis identified three fundamental trends transforming international relations that necessitated a new diplomatic approach. First, many of the most far-reaching societal changes were being driven by technological disruption across multiple domains—from artificial intelligence’s impact on employment to social media’s effects on democratic processes. Second, multinational tech companies had become extremely influential, with their economic and political power matching or surpassing that of traditional state partners. Third, this combination was creating new forms of geopolitical competition and challenging established values and institutions (Klynge et al., 2020).

The Appointment of the World’s First Tech Ambassador

Following internal discussions and strategic planning, Denmark officially appointed the world’s first Tech Ambassador in September 2017, with Casper Klynge assuming this groundbreaking role. This appointment was formalized as part of the Danish Foreign and Security Policy Strategy 2017-2018, establishing a precedent that would inspire similar initiatives worldwide (Klynge et al., 2020).

The Danish TechPlomacy initiative was designed with three distinctive features that differentiated it from other forms of digital diplomacy:

Technology as Foreign Policy Field: Rather than merely using digital tools for diplomatic communication, Denmark treated technology and digitalization as a primary foreign policy domain, with the tech sector as principal interlocutors. This approach encompassed not only multinational tech companies but also investors, civil society, academia, other governments, and international institutions—essentially the entire tech policy ecosystem (Klynge et al., 2020).

Political Rather Than Commercial Mandate: The initiative was explicitly designed to address political and regulatory questions that had traditionally been reserved for states but where private tech companies were gaining increasing influence. This political focus enabled Danish policy-makers and government agencies to bring timely and often sensitive regulatory questions directly to tech companies (Klynge et al., 2020).

Global Mandate and Presence: Unlike traditional territorial-based diplomatic missions, the Tech Ambassador operated with a global mandate, maintaining a deterritorialized presence with offices in Silicon Valley, Copenhagen, and Beijing. This global approach allowed Denmark to maintain proximity to key tech hubs while building formal and informal networks crucial for a small nation’s ability to promote its interests in an increasingly complex global landscape (Klynge et al., 2020).

Contemporary Practice and Global Diffusion

The Proliferation of Tech Diplomatic Initiatives

Denmark’s pioneering effort catalyzed a global movement in tech diplomacy. Within a few years of Denmark’s initiative, numerous countries began appointing their own tech, digital, or cyber ambassadors, including Germany, France, Estonia, Slovakia, Australia, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Malta (Klynge et al., 2020). Each nation adapted the concept to their specific national priorities and capacities, creating a diverse ecosystem of tech diplomatic practices.

The emergence of tech diplomacy reflects broader analytical frameworks that distinguish between different approaches to digital governance. Bjola and Kornprobst (2025) identify a spectrum ranging from state-driven approaches, where national governments retain primary control, to polylateral approaches that actively engage non-state actors such as technology companies and international organizations. Tech diplomacy exemplifies this polylateral turn, representing not only states negotiating with each other but also engaging with powerful corporate actors who own critical digital platforms and infrastructure.

Countries have established specialized diplomatic posts focused on technology policy in key global hubs. For example, Denmark, France, Australia, the United Kingdom, Germany, and other nations have created tech diplomacy representations in Silicon Valley, recognizing the concentration of technological innovation and corporate power in this region (Ittelson & Rauchbauer, 2023). These initiatives reflect growing recognition that effective engagement with tech companies is essential for safeguarding national interests in the digital age.

Multistakeholder Engagement Models

Contemporary tech diplomacy practice is characterized by its embrace of multistakeholder engagement models. The rapid adoption of digital technologies has transformed societies and economies, creating both opportunities and risks that extend far beyond the purview of nation-states alone (Kuziemski & Misuraca, 2020). This transformation has generated expectations for governments to play more active roles in digital society, matched by the necessity to involve a broader spectrum of stakeholders to ensure responsible technological advancement.

The Danish TechPlomacy initiative exemplifies this shift by engaging with the entire tech policy ecosystem rather than focusing solely on state actors or commercial interests. This approach acknowledges that many political and regulatory questions traditionally reserved for governments are now influenced by private sector entities whose decisions have global ramifications (Klynge et al., 2020).

Contemporary multistakeholder models typically involve:

Technology Companies: From multinational corporations to emerging startups and regional tech firms, with recognition that these entities often possess resources and technical expertise that rival state capabilities.

Civil Society Organizations: Digital rights groups, academic institutions, and advocacy organizations that contribute unique perspectives and expertise to policy discussions.

International Organizations: UN agencies, regional bodies, and specialized tech governance institutions that provide platforms for multilateral coordination.

Technical Communities: Standards-setting organizations, technical experts, and research institutions that contribute essential technical knowledge to governance processes.

Regional Variations and Adaptations

Contemporary tech diplomacy practice exhibits significant regional variations, reflecting different governmental approaches to digital governance and technological development. These variations demonstrate how the fundamental concept of tech diplomacy has been adapted to diverse national contexts and strategic priorities.

European Approaches emphasize regulatory leadership and digital sovereignty, with the European Union positioning itself as a global standard-setter through comprehensive regulations. The EU’s strategy reflects its relative lack of major indigenous tech companies, compelling it to focus on regulatory approaches as a means of asserting digital sovereignty (Calderaro & Blumfelde, 2022). European initiatives such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the AI Act exemplify efforts to shape global technology norms through regulatory innovation, demonstrating how regions can leverage their market size and regulatory capacity to project standards globally.

East Asian Models are characterized by strong state involvement in technological development, with countries like China, South Korea, and Japan leveraging government resources to set directions for technological advancement while maintaining close coordination with domestic tech companies (Papyshev & Yarime, 2023). These approaches prioritize development, infrastructure, and national priorities, with the state assuming a leading role in facilitating and initiating AI projects while removing regulatory barriers to accelerate private sector innovation.

North American Strategies prioritize innovation and public-private partnerships, with the United States relying on its robust technology ecosystem and dynamic private sector to maintain technological leadership while using diplomatic engagement to shape global norms (Dibiaggio et al., 2024). This approach combines investment in foundational technologies with active engagement in tech diplomacy to shape international norms while safeguarding national interests.

Following the inauguration of President Trump in January 2025, the United States has significantly intensified its focus on AI infrastructure and technological dominance through ambitious public-private partnerships. The administration announced the Stargate project, a joint venture between OpenAI, Oracle, and SoftBank, committing up to $500 billion over four years to build AI data centers and infrastructure throughout the United States (CNN Business, 2025). This initiative is part of Trump’s comprehensive AI Action Plan, which identifies over 90 federal policy actions across three pillars: accelerating innovation, building American AI infrastructure, and leading in international diplomacy and security (The White House, 2025). The administration has also streamlined federal permitting processes for data centers through executive orders, designating AI infrastructure development as a national priority while reducing environmental review requirements to expedite construction on federal lands (The White House, 2025). This aggressive approach reflects Trump’s stated goal of ensuring the United States “wins the AI race” against global competitors, particularly China, positioning technological supremacy as central to American economic and national security strategy.

Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities

Modern tech diplomacy faces several key challenges that shape its contemporary practice. The transnational nature of digital technologies creates complex jurisdictional challenges, as tech companies operate across multiple legal regimes with varying regulatory requirements (Kurbalija & Ittelson, 2025). These challenges are particularly pronounced for cross-border data flows, where regulatory arbitrage allows corporations to circumvent more restrictive regimes by locating servers or legal entities in countries with less stringent regulations.

Significant power asymmetries exist between technologically advanced nations and those in the Global South, where limited capacity and technological dependency can constrain effective participation in global digital governance (Ayana et al., 2024). These disparities are compounded by the concentration of AI innovation and infrastructure in a few technologically advanced countries and corporate hubs, which can reinforce existing dependencies and perpetuate cycles of technological subordination.

The rapid pace of technological innovation often outstrips diplomatic and regulatory responses, requiring adaptive frameworks capable of addressing emerging challenges (Nitzberg & Zysman, 2021). This challenge is particularly acute for general-purpose technologies such as artificial intelligence, where the possibilities and risks only become apparent over time, making it difficult for public authorities to keep pace with technological change in both understanding and rule-making.

Case Studies in Contemporary Practice

Kenya’s TechPlomacy Connective

A recent example of contemporary tech diplomacy innovation is Kenya’s launch of the TechPlomacy Connective in July 2025, demonstrating how countries in the Global South are adapting tech diplomacy concepts to their specific development contexts and regional leadership ambitions (Kamau, 2025).

Kenya’s approach emphasizes several innovative elements:

Inclusive Digital Governance: The initiative serves as a collaborative framework for policymakers, tech leaders, and civil society to co-create inclusive and ethical digital policies. Prime Cabinet Secretary Musalia Mudavadi emphasized that “Kenya’s Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2025 places technology diplomacy at the core of our international engagement, therefore, we aim to transform Nairobi into a global multilateral and financial hub” (Kamau, 2025).

Regional Innovation: The Connective is expected to foster regional innovation through public-private partnerships and knowledge-sharing platforms, reflecting Kenya’s ambition to serve as a regional hub for technological development and digital cooperation.

International Engagement: Kenya has positioned itself as a leader in global digital policy, including its role as the only African country in the International Network of AI Safety Institutes and its leadership in championing the first-ever United Nations resolution on Artificial Intelligence (Kamau, 2025).

Ambassador Philip Thigo, Kenya’s Special Envoy on Technology, emphasized the human-centered approach of the initiative: “The digital future belongs to everyone, but only if it’s built on resilience, safety, trust, and inclusion, as initiative is about empowering nations and ensuring that emerging technologies are developed with a human-first approach” (Kamau, 2025).

Denmark’s Continued Innovation

Despite being the pioneer in tech diplomacy, Denmark continues to innovate and expand its approach. Recent analysis suggests three key opportunities for enhancing Danish techplomacy: discursive expansion through more inclusive global narratives, geographic expansion to other technology hubs, and sectoral expansion through enhanced engagement with academic and business stakeholders (Eggeling, 2025).

The discursive expansion involves moving beyond “East vs. West” narratives that may exclude emerging actors in global tech policy who resist binary framings such as “US versus China.” As one South American diplomat noted, current dominant narratives presume a Western-centric worldview that fails to capture the ambitions of digital middle powers and their roughly two billion citizens (Eggeling, 2025).

Coalition Building and Multilateral Initiatives

Contemporary tech diplomacy increasingly emphasizes coalition building among like-minded countries. Denmark has pioneered this approach by convening multiple meetings of Tech and Cyber Ambassadors, bringing together representatives from over twenty countries for discussions on technology, cybersecurity, and foreign policy (Klynge et al., 2020).

These initiatives demonstrate the evolution of tech diplomacy from bilateral engagement toward multilateral coordination, reflecting the global nature of digital challenges and the need for collective responses. The approach recognizes that effective digital governance requires collaboration among a wide array of participants, as no single stakeholder can manage the uncertainties and insecurities generated by rapid technological change alone.

A significant milestone in multilateral tech diplomacy occurred with the inaugural launch of the Tech Diplomacy Forum at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris on June 18, 2025. This groundbreaking initiative convened world leaders, technology innovators, policymakers, and stakeholders from over 60 countries to address critical challenges at the intersection of technology, diplomacy, and global governance. The forum focused on key themes including digital sovereignty and global governance, AI and ethics in international relations, cybersecurity and international cooperation, and bridging the digital divide (Science-Diplomacy.eu, 2025). This initiative represents a paradigm shift toward proactive diplomatic frameworks for technological governance, moving beyond reactive approaches to establish collaborative solutions for global digital challenges.

Theoretical Implications and Future Directions

From State-Centric to Polylateral Diplomacy

Tech diplomacy represents a fundamental shift from traditional state-centric models of international relations toward more polylateral approaches that recognize the agency of non-state actors. This transformation reflects the changing nature of power in the digital age, where influence is increasingly distributed among states, corporations, civil society organizations, and technical communities (Bjola & Kornprobst, 2025).

The polylateral nature of tech diplomacy is particularly evident in specialized fields like cybersecurity and AI governance, where non-state actors now play decisive roles in shaping international order and redefining traditional notions of sovereignty. Private companies co-construct diplomatic agency alongside states, creating new forms of hybrid authority characterized by plural institutional logics that blend public interest objectives with for-profit motives (Radu, 2021).

The Challenge of Democratic Governance

A central tension in contemporary tech diplomacy concerns the balance between innovation and democratic governance. As technology companies gain increasing influence over digital infrastructure and information flows, questions arise about accountability, transparency, and the protection of public interests (Roberts et al., 2021).

The European experience illustrates these challenges, where questions about institutional legitimacy are compounded by the ambiguous role of corporate actors in shaping policy agendas and regulatory frameworks. While representative democracy provides a basis for input legitimacy, there remain notable deficiencies in procedural clarity and demonstrable efficacy regarding digital sovereignty initiatives (Roberts et al., 2021).

Tech diplomacy offers a potential mechanism for reasserting democratic oversight while fostering continued innovation. However, achieving this balance requires careful attention to power asymmetries and the development of inclusive governance frameworks that reflect diverse societal values and ensure meaningful participation from all affected stakeholders.

Future Evolution

The future of tech diplomacy will likely be shaped by several key trends identified in the literature:

Institutional Maturation: As tech diplomacy practices become more established, we can expect greater institutionalization and standardization of approaches, with anticipated developments including the establishment of institutional frameworks specifically designed to support AI diplomacy within state architectures.

Expanded Scope: Tech diplomacy will likely expand beyond current focuses on AI, cybersecurity, and data governance to address emerging technologies like quantum computing, biotechnology, and space technologies, requiring adaptive frameworks capable of addressing rapid technological change.

Global South Participation: Increasing participation from Global South countries will bring new perspectives and priorities to tech diplomacy, potentially reshaping global digital governance frameworks. However, this requires addressing persistent barriers related to technological dependency and limited institutional capacity (Ayana et al., 2024).

Multistakeholder Governance: The trend toward multistakeholder governance models will likely accelerate, with new institutional frameworks emerging to facilitate collaboration among diverse actors. The rise of multistakeholder and polycentric governance reflects recognition that no single actor possesses the authority or capacity to unilaterally regulate or steer technological development and deployment (Bjola & Kornprobst, 2025).

Implications for AI Sovereignty

Tech diplomacy plays a crucial role in mediating competing interests in the pursuit of AI sovereignty—the capacity of states to independently shape the trajectory of AI systems in alignment with their own values, interests, and legal frameworks (Roberts et al., 2021). The emergence of tech diplomats reflects an institutional response to the challenges posed by the increasing centrality of private firms in driving technological innovation.

The concept of AI sovereignty extends beyond mere technical self-sufficiency to encompass political, economic, and normative dimensions. For many countries, particularly those in the Global South, achieving AI sovereignty presents acute challenges related to technological dependency and limited capacity for indigenous innovation (Ayana et al., 2024). Tech diplomacy provides a mechanism for these nations to engage in global governance processes while building domestic capabilities and asserting greater agency over their digital futures.

Conclusion

Tech diplomacy has evolved from Denmark’s pioneering initiative in 2017 to become a diverse and dynamic field of diplomatic practice. The appointment of the world’s first Tech Ambassador marked the beginning of a global transformation in how governments engage with digital technologies and technology companies, establishing a precedent that has been adapted and refined by numerous countries worldwide.

Contemporary practice reflects the adaptation of this innovative approach to different national contexts, priorities, and capacities. From Kenya’s emphasis on inclusive digital governance to Denmark’s continued innovation in coalition building, tech diplomacy demonstrates remarkable flexibility in addressing diverse challenges while maintaining its core focus on bridging the gap between technological innovation and public governance.

The success of tech diplomacy initiatives demonstrates the potential for diplomatic innovation in addressing the challenges of digital transformation. However, realizing this potential requires continued attention to issues of inclusion, accountability, and democratic governance. The field faces ongoing challenges related to power asymmetries, jurisdictional complexity, and the rapid pace of technological change, all of which require adaptive and collaborative responses.

Tech diplomacy represents not a replacement for traditional diplomatic practices but a complement that reflects the realities of power and governance in the digital age. As Bjola and Kornprobst (2025) argue, tech diplomacy operates at the intersection of technology, agency, and order, requiring analytical frameworks that account for the complex interactions among diverse actors in shaping digital governance outcomes.

The future of tech diplomacy lies in its continued evolution toward more inclusive, multistakeholder approaches that recognize the distributed nature of power in the digital domain. By fostering dialogue among diverse stakeholders and developing adaptive frameworks for addressing technological challenges, tech diplomacy can contribute to a more equitable and sustainable digital future. As digital technologies continue to reshape international relations, the field will play an increasingly important role in mediating between technological innovation and public interest, helping to ensure that the benefits of digital transformation are broadly shared while mitigating its risks.

The theoretical and practical insights generated by tech diplomacy initiatives worldwide provide valuable lessons for both scholars and practitioners seeking to understand and navigate the complex intersection of technology, diplomacy, and governance in the contemporary international system. As this field continues to mature, it will undoubtedly contribute to our broader understanding of how diplomatic practice adapts to fundamental changes in the global distribution of power and authority.

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